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学者姓名：赖汉江
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Abstract ：
Biomineralization has been used for the treatment of calcareous sand to improve its properties. Although many studies have been performed on the biomineralized calcareous sand under freshwater conditions, few studies were focused on the behaviors of calcareous sand in seawater. As the freshwater is scarce in island areas, the freshwater-based biomineralization technology may be unsuitable for the treatment. In this study, seawater-based bacterial enzyme induced carbonate precipitation (BEICP) was proposed to treat calcareous sand. A series of tests were conducted to verify the feasibility and efficiency of this treatment method through investigating the effects of seawater on the biomineralization and the properties of biomineralized calcareous sand in comparison with microbially induced carbonate precipitation (MICP). Test results reveal that seawater leads to the decrease of urease activity of bacterial cells and urease. NaCl, MgCl2, Na2SO4, and CaCl2 are the main inhibitory components in seawater, of which MgCl2 and CaCl2 have a strong influence on the urease activity of bacterial cells and urease, respectively. Compared to MICP treatment, BEICP-treated calcareous sand exhibits higher unconfined compressive strength and better biomineralization effects. The findings of this study can contribute to the application of biomineralization technology in island areas. © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2025.
Keyword ：
Bacterial enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation Bacterial enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation Biomineralization Biomineralization Calcareous sand Calcareous sand Seawater Seawater Strength Strength
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| GB/T 7714 | Cui, M.-J. , Wu, J.-B. , Lai, H.-J. et al. Seawater-based bacterial enzyme induced carbonate precipitation for biomineralization of calcareous sand [J]. | Acta Geotechnica , 2025 . |
| MLA | Cui, M.-J. et al. "Seawater-based bacterial enzyme induced carbonate precipitation for biomineralization of calcareous sand" . | Acta Geotechnica (2025) . |
| APA | Cui, M.-J. , Wu, J.-B. , Lai, H.-J. , Huang, M. , Zheng, J.-J. , Hu, X. et al. Seawater-based bacterial enzyme induced carbonate precipitation for biomineralization of calcareous sand . | Acta Geotechnica , 2025 . |
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Heavy metal pollution in landfill soil poses a dual challenge of environmental toxicity and resource depletion. Enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation (EICP) was systematically evaluated as a sustainable stabilization method for cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and chromium (Cr) under both solution- and soil-phase conditions. Laboratory-scale experiments demonstrated that EICP achieved over 80% removal efficiency for Cd, Pb, and copper (Cu) in solution-phase systems, while soil-phase trials focused on Cd, Pb, and Cr to simulate realistic field conditions. Optimal performance was achieved using a 1:1 molar ratio of soybean-derived urease (1.0 U/mL) to CaCl2 (0.5 M), with Cd stabilization reaching 91.5%. Vacuum-assisted filtration improved treatment uniformity by 29.2% in clay soils. X-ray diffraction identified crystalline otavite in Cd systems, while Pb and Cu were stabilized via surface adsorption. Sequential extraction confirmed that over 70% of Cd was transformed into carbonate-bound phases. Treated soils met TCLP leaching standards and reuse criteria, maintaining neutral pH (7.2-8.1) and low salinity. Compared to cement-based methods, EICP avoids CO2 release from calcination and fossil fuel use. Carbon in urea is retained as solid CaCO3, reducing emissions by 0.3-0.5 t CO2-eq per ton of soil. These findings support EICP as a scalable, low-carbon alternative for landfill soil remediation.
Keyword ：
biomineralization biomineralization carbonate precipitation carbonate precipitation metal immobilization metal immobilization soil remediation soil remediation urease urease
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| GB/T 7714 | Xu, Wangqing , Zheng, Junjie , Cui, Mingjuan et al. Enzyme-Induced Carbonate Precipitation for the Stabilization of Heavy Metal-Contaminated Landfill Soils: A Sustainable Approach to Resource Recovery and Environmental Remediation [J]. | SUSTAINABILITY , 2025 , 17 (10) . |
| MLA | Xu, Wangqing et al. "Enzyme-Induced Carbonate Precipitation for the Stabilization of Heavy Metal-Contaminated Landfill Soils: A Sustainable Approach to Resource Recovery and Environmental Remediation" . | SUSTAINABILITY 17 . 10 (2025) . |
| APA | Xu, Wangqing , Zheng, Junjie , Cui, Mingjuan , Lai, Hanjiang . Enzyme-Induced Carbonate Precipitation for the Stabilization of Heavy Metal-Contaminated Landfill Soils: A Sustainable Approach to Resource Recovery and Environmental Remediation . | SUSTAINABILITY , 2025 , 17 (10) . |
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Soil contamination by heavy metals presents substantial ecological and geotechnical risks, thereby demanding sustainable remediation strategies. Conventional approaches, including chemical stabilization and microbial-induced carbonate precipitation (MICP), are limited by high costs, ecological disturbances, and sensitivity to environmental stressors. A plant-derived urease-driven enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation (EICP) system was evaluated for immobilizing cadmium (Cd2(+)), lead (Pb2(+)), and zinc (Zn2(+)) in contaminated soils. Systematic screening revealed that jack bean and watermelon seed ureases are optimal catalysts for heavy metal sequestration, achieving efficiencies of 87.3% for Cd2 (+) , 91.5% for Pb2 (+) , and 76.4% for Zn2 (+) . These high efficiencies are attributed to their catalytic specificity and the retained enzymatic activity under environmental stress. Critical process parameters were fine-tuned through iterative experimentation, maintaining a urea-CaCl2 reaction stoichiometry of 1.5:1 molar ratio and calibrating the enzyme dosage to 1.2 U/g of soil matrix. This optimized operational range effectively promoted carbonate mineralization while preserving essential soil hydraulic properties, as evidenced by sustained permeability exceeding 10 (-) (5) cm/s throughout precipitation cycles. Durability assessments under simulated acid rain and freeze-thaw cycles demonstrated 82.5% retention of Cd2(+) and 92.7% retention of unconfined compressive strength, outperforming conventional lime and MICP treatments. X-ray diffraction analysis confirmed the presence of stable crystalline phases. Field validation confirmed that the EICP protocol can be feasibly scaled to real-world sites with operational costs averaging $52 per cubic meter, representing a 61% reduction compared to microbial-based treatments. This plant-based EICP approach offers a scalable and cost-effective solution for ecological restoration and geotechnical stabilization in contaminated soils, demonstrating significant potential for sustainable environmental management.
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| GB/T 7714 | Xu, Wangqing , Zheng, Junjie , Lai, Hanjiang et al. Sustainable heavy metal immobilization in contaminated soils using plant-derived urease-driven biomineralization [J]. | PLOS ONE , 2025 , 20 (9) . |
| MLA | Xu, Wangqing et al. "Sustainable heavy metal immobilization in contaminated soils using plant-derived urease-driven biomineralization" . | PLOS ONE 20 . 9 (2025) . |
| APA | Xu, Wangqing , Zheng, Junjie , Lai, Hanjiang , Cui, Mingjuan . Sustainable heavy metal immobilization in contaminated soils using plant-derived urease-driven biomineralization . | PLOS ONE , 2025 , 20 (9) . |
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One-phase-low-pH method is a simple, efficient and easy-to-use biogrouting method for biomineralization based on an Enzyme Induced Carbonate Precipitation (EICP) process. This method utilizes the low-pH biotreatment solution (a mixture of urease solution and cementation solution) to provide a lag period for the biomineralization process, allowing the biotreatment solution to be uniformly distributed within the soil and thereby improving the uniform distribution of calcium carbonate. The existing one-phase-low-pH method uses a low pH urease solution to prepare the biotreatment solution. However, long-term exposure to a low pH environment may result in a decrease in activity or even inactivation of urease, which is not conducive to the practical application of this technology. In this study, a modified one-phase-low-pH method using low pH cementation solution is proposed. Three sets of tests, including urease activity durability tests, solution tests, and sand column treatment tests, were conducted in this study to clarify the necessity and feasibility of the modified method. The test results showed that the acidic environment accelerated the decrease of urease activity over time. This phenomenon would be more pronounced at a lower pH, and urease would be immediately inactive at a pH lower than 4.5. Meanwhile, a high chemical concentration would also lead to a decrease in activity or even inactivation of urease. If urease is active and the initial pH of the biotreatment solution is higher than 4.5, the pH of the biotreatment solution will rapidly rise to a weakly alkaline state and enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation can occur. A biotreatment solution that would produce relatively uniform biomineralization can be prepared by using cementation solution with a pH range of 1.25-3.5 and bacterial urease solution in a volume ratio of 1:1. For the sand column with relatively uniform biomineralization, the pH of the cementation solution (or the initial pH of the biotreatment solution) has a negligible effect on the strength enhancement for similar calcium carbonate content.
Keyword ：
Biomineralization Biomineralization Enzyme induced carbonate precipitation (EICP) Enzyme induced carbonate precipitation (EICP) Low pH cementation solution Low pH cementation solution One-phase-low-pH biogrouting method One-phase-low-pH biogrouting method Urease activity Urease activity
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| GB/T 7714 | Chen, Yi-Wei , Cui, Ming-Juan , Lai, Han-Jiang et al. Modified one-phase-low-pH EICP method using low-pH cementation solution for soil biomineralization [J]. | ACTA GEOTECHNICA , 2025 , 20 (8) : 4133-4146 . |
| MLA | Chen, Yi-Wei et al. "Modified one-phase-low-pH EICP method using low-pH cementation solution for soil biomineralization" . | ACTA GEOTECHNICA 20 . 8 (2025) : 4133-4146 . |
| APA | Chen, Yi-Wei , Cui, Ming-Juan , Lai, Han-Jiang , Zheng, Jun-Jie , Ren, Yu-Xiao . Modified one-phase-low-pH EICP method using low-pH cementation solution for soil biomineralization . | ACTA GEOTECHNICA , 2025 , 20 (8) , 4133-4146 . |
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An innovative microbial remediation protocol is proposed to overcome critical limitations of conventional microbial-induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) for concrete crack repair. The method integrates pH preconditioning of Sporosarcina pasteurii with a bioadditive-assisted crystallization strategy to address microbial inactivation under highly alkaline conditions, inefficient calcium utilization, and structural instability caused by metastable vaterite formation. Acidification to pH 5.5 preserved 78 % of urease activity at pH 12.5 by stabilizing bacterial zeta potential, while a composite bioadditive composed of polyvinyl alcohol, sodium alginate, and colloidal silica nanoparticles reduced the critical nucleation radius by 29 %, enhancing calcite crystal formation. Mechanical testing showed a 26.8 % increase in flexural strength and an 88.7 % calcium utilization rate, with durability evaluations confirming stable crack sealing over 180 thermal-humidity cycles. Field-scale application to a deteriorated underground garage demonstrated 92 % void-filling efficiency and compressive strength recovery from 28.5 MPa to 41.2 MPa. The developed protocol eliminates the need for carrier materials and reduces carbon emissions, establishing a scalable and sustainable framework for infrastructure rehabilitation. These results highlight the potential of synergistic biological and material strategies for advancing next-generation self-healing concrete technologies. © 2025
Keyword ：
Bending strength Bending strength Bending tests Bending tests Biological materials preservation Biological materials preservation Carbon carbon composites Carbon carbon composites Compression testing Compression testing Compressive strength Compressive strength Cracks Cracks Fracture testing Fracture testing Hardness testing Hardness testing High performance concrete High performance concrete Self compacting concrete Self compacting concrete Self-healing materials Self-healing materials Tensile testing Tensile testing
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| GB/T 7714 | Xu, Wangqing , Lai, Hanjiang , Cui, Mingjuan et al. Synergistic pH-bioadditive strategy for self-healing concrete: Achieving high-efficiency calcite crystallization and sustainable infrastructure rehabilitation [J]. | Construction and Building Materials , 2025 , 484 . |
| MLA | Xu, Wangqing et al. "Synergistic pH-bioadditive strategy for self-healing concrete: Achieving high-efficiency calcite crystallization and sustainable infrastructure rehabilitation" . | Construction and Building Materials 484 (2025) . |
| APA | Xu, Wangqing , Lai, Hanjiang , Cui, Mingjuan , Zheng, Junjie . Synergistic pH-bioadditive strategy for self-healing concrete: Achieving high-efficiency calcite crystallization and sustainable infrastructure rehabilitation . | Construction and Building Materials , 2025 , 484 . |
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Biomineralization based on bacterial enzyme induced carbonate precipitation (BEICP) process is a promising alternative to cement-based ground treatment technology. The bacterial urease used in BEICP process is usually ultrasonic extracted from urease-producing bacteria. To efficiently extract urease with relatively higher activity from bacterial cells, the ultrasonic extraction parameters of urease were optimized in this study. Next, a series of bacterial urease extraction tests and sand column treatment tests were conducted to investigate the effects of vibration amplitude, upper temperature limit, and cooling method on the urease extraction process and biomineralization of sand. The results show that the upper temperature limit is an important factor affecting the extraction efficiency and the activity of the extracted urease solution, and the optimum upper temperature limit is 50 degrees C. The results indicate that increasing vibration amplitude could improve the extraction efficiency, but it hardly affects the urease activity (UA) under the optimal temperature. Continuous cooling could effectively simplify the operation and further improve the efficiency of urease extraction. Under the same urease activity of biotreatment solution, there is no marked difference in calcium carbonate content (CCC) and unconfined compressive strength of biomineralized sand columns prepared by urease solution extracted with different vibration amplitudes and upper temperature limits. The results of this study could provide a reference for application of BEICP technology of urease extraction to large-scale soil treatment. (c) 2025 Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ 4.0/).
Keyword ：
Bacterial enzyme induced carbonate Bacterial enzyme induced carbonate Biomineralization Biomineralization precipitation (BEICP) precipitation (BEICP) Soil improvement Soil improvement Ultrasound Ultrasound Urease extraction Urease extraction
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| GB/T 7714 | Lai, Hanjiang , Chen, Yiwei , Cui, Mingjuan et al. Extraction of high activity bacterial urease and its application to biomineralization of soil [J]. | JOURNAL OF ROCK MECHANICS AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING , 2025 , 17 (3) : 1847-1861 . |
| MLA | Lai, Hanjiang et al. "Extraction of high activity bacterial urease and its application to biomineralization of soil" . | JOURNAL OF ROCK MECHANICS AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 17 . 3 (2025) : 1847-1861 . |
| APA | Lai, Hanjiang , Chen, Yiwei , Cui, Mingjuan , Zheng, Junjie , Chen, Zhibo . Extraction of high activity bacterial urease and its application to biomineralization of soil . | JOURNAL OF ROCK MECHANICS AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING , 2025 , 17 (3) , 1847-1861 . |
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In this study, enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation (EICP) combined with xanthan gum curing technology was used to improve the engineering properties of standard sand, and the curing effect of EICP combined with different xanthan gum contents was studied by macroscopic tests such as unconfined compressive strength, direct shear, permeability, calcium carbonate content, and microscopic tests such as scanning electron microscope and nuclear magnetic resonance. The results show that the unconfined compressive strength, shear strength, cohesion and internal friction angle of EICP combined with xanthan gum solidified sand increases with the increase of xanthan gum content and reaches the maximum value at the content of 2%, in which the increase of unconfined compressive strength, shear strength, and cohesion is significant; further, the increase of internal friction angle is small. The permeability coefficient of EICP combined with xanthan gum solidified sand decreases with the increase of xanthan gum content, and the permeability coefficient of 2% xanthan gum is only 65.4% that of pure EICP treatment. The incorporation of xanthan gum promotes the deposition of calcium carbonate, increases the viscosity of the reaction solution, and produces colloidal encapsulation and bonding effect on the sand particles. In addition, the incorporation of xanthan gum effectively reduces the porosity of solidified sand and greatly reduces the proportion of large pores and medium pores by changing the pore size, which greatly improves the pore structure.
Keyword ：
Enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation (EICP) Enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation (EICP) Multiscale engineering properties Multiscale engineering properties Soybean urease Soybean urease Standard sand Standard sand Xanthan gum Xanthan gum
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| GB/T 7714 | Cui, Meng , Xiong, Huihui , Zheng, Junjie et al. Experimental Study on Multiscale Engineering Properties of EICP Combined with Xanthan Gum Solidified Sand [J]. | JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING , 2024 , 36 (6) . |
| MLA | Cui, Meng et al. "Experimental Study on Multiscale Engineering Properties of EICP Combined with Xanthan Gum Solidified Sand" . | JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING 36 . 6 (2024) . |
| APA | Cui, Meng , Xiong, Huihui , Zheng, Junjie , Cui, Mingjuan , Lv, Suying , Lai, Hanjiang . Experimental Study on Multiscale Engineering Properties of EICP Combined with Xanthan Gum Solidified Sand . | JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING , 2024 , 36 (6) . |
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There are two major challenges for the use of enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation (EICP)-based soil improvement method: cost and treatment effect. Optimizing the parameters of the treatment solution is one way to enhance the treatment effect and/or reduce the treatment cost. In this study, three key factors: the initial pH (i.e. pH0) of the enzyme solution used to prepare the treatment solution (i.e. the mixture of enzyme solution, CaCl2 and urea), the urease activity of the treatment solution and the concentration of cementation solution (i.e. CaCl2 and urea) are investigated. Crude soybean enzyme solution and the one-phase-low-pH injection method are adopted for the treatment of sand. The results show that the pH0 of the enzyme solution affects the urease activity of enzyme and thus the urease activity of the prepared treatment solution. It is discovered in this paper that there is a threshold pH value for the treatment solution. Only when the pH of the treatment solution is higher than the threshold pH value, calcium ions convert completely into calcium carbonate. There is also a threshold urease activity which is affected by the concentration of cementation solution, CCS. The optimal CCS is 1.0 M. When the CCS is higher than 1.75 M, the urease activity of soybean enzyme solution would be completely lost. These findings are important in guiding the application of EICP treatment using the crude soybean enzyme in real soil improvement projects.
Keyword ：
Crude soybean enzyme Crude soybean enzyme Enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation Enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation Influencing factors Influencing factors Soil improvement Soil improvement
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| GB/T 7714 | Cui, Ming-Juan , Chu, Jian , Lai, Han-Jiang . Optimization of one-phase-low-pH enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation method for soil improvement [J]. | ACTA GEOTECHNICA , 2024 , 19 (3) : 1611-1625 . |
| MLA | Cui, Ming-Juan et al. "Optimization of one-phase-low-pH enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation method for soil improvement" . | ACTA GEOTECHNICA 19 . 3 (2024) : 1611-1625 . |
| APA | Cui, Ming-Juan , Chu, Jian , Lai, Han-Jiang . Optimization of one-phase-low-pH enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation method for soil improvement . | ACTA GEOTECHNICA , 2024 , 19 (3) , 1611-1625 . |
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Microbially or enzyme induced carbonate precipitation has emerged to be a new type of soil improvement method. However, it appears that the biocementation process is affected by many factors and a common understanding on the control factors on the biocement effect has not been reached. This paper attempts to identify the main factors that controlling the MICP or EICP effect through an in-depth discussion on the fundamentals of biocementation process. Similar to other cemented granular materials, biocemented soil is a structural soil composite consisting of soil skeleton and biocement force chain or biocement network. The strength and stiffness of the biocemented soil is controlled by the reinforcement effect of the biocement network on the soil skeleton or the interplay of the soil skeleton and precipitates. The contribution of the strength by soil skeleton is affected by the soil types and soil properties, while the contribution of the precipitates is through the distribution of the biocement network and the properties of the precipitates. © 2024
Keyword ：
Biocementation Biocementation Influencing factor Influencing factor Mechanism Mechanism Strength enhancement Strength enhancement
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| GB/T 7714 | Lai, H. , Ding, X. , Cui, M. et al. Factors affecting the effectiveness of biocementation of soil [J]. | Biogeotechnics , 2024 , 2 (3) . |
| MLA | Lai, H. et al. "Factors affecting the effectiveness of biocementation of soil" . | Biogeotechnics 2 . 3 (2024) . |
| APA | Lai, H. , Ding, X. , Cui, M. , Zheng, J. , Chu, J. , Chen, Z. . Factors affecting the effectiveness of biocementation of soil . | Biogeotechnics , 2024 , 2 (3) . |
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The one-phase-low-pH method is a simple,efficient,and user-friendly biogrouting technique that can effectively improve the biomineralization of enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation(EICP)using free urease enzyme.One of the most significant advantages of this method is its capacity to effectively delay calcium carbonate(CaCO3)precipitation by reducing the pH of the solution through the addition of acid.This prevents bioclogging during the biogrouting process and improves the biomineralization effect.However,the biomineralization of the one-phase-low-pH based EICP method may be influenced by the specific acid used.To investigate the impact of acid type on the one-phase-low-pH EICP method using crude soybean urease solution(CSUS),four types of acids,including hydrochloric acid(HCl),nitric acid(HNO3),acetic acid(CH3COOH),and lactic acid(C3H6O3),were used to adjust the pH of CSUS.A series of macroscopic and microscopic experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of acid type on the one-phase-low-pH EICP method.The results indicate that the acid has an inhibition on the urease activity(UA)of CSUS.Among the acids tested,HNO3 exhibits the most pronounced inhibitory effect on the UA of CSUS,followed by HCl,and the least pronounced inhibitory effect for CH3COOH and C3H6O3 under the same pH conditions.Meanwhile,CH3COOH and C3H6O3 could provide a longer delay duration of CaCO3 precipitation than HNO3 and HCl.Therefore,the one-phase-low-pH EICP method based on CH3COOH and C3H6O3 can significantly improve the effective biocementation depth compared to that based on HNO3 and HCl.Nevertheless,the different types of acids appear to have no obvious effect on the polymorph and crystalline of the precipitated CaCO3 crystals.
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| GB/T 7714 | Yajie Weng , Hanjiang Lai , Junjie Zheng et al. Effect of acid type on biomineralization of soil using crude soybean urease solution [J]. | 岩石力学与岩土工程学报（英文版） , 2024 , 16 (12) : 5135-5146 . |
| MLA | Yajie Weng et al. "Effect of acid type on biomineralization of soil using crude soybean urease solution" . | 岩石力学与岩土工程学报（英文版） 16 . 12 (2024) : 5135-5146 . |
| APA | Yajie Weng , Hanjiang Lai , Junjie Zheng , Mingjuan Cui , Yihang Chen , Zhitao Xu et al. Effect of acid type on biomineralization of soil using crude soybean urease solution . | 岩石力学与岩土工程学报（英文版） , 2024 , 16 (12) , 5135-5146 . |
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